Portrait of Thomas Paine, a prominent 18th-century thinker and revolutionary, known for his pivotal contributions to American and French revolutions and his works advocating democracy and human rights.

Thomas Paine: The Revolutionary Mind Behind American Independence and Human Rights.

by History of Western philosophyPhilosophyWestern Philosophy

⚫Thomas Paine’s “Common Sense” popularized the idea of self-governance, significantly influencing American and global democratic movements.
⚫Paine’s writing style made complex political ideas accessible, inspiring widespread support for American independence.
⚫His critiques of hereditary monarchy challenged traditional authority, promoting democratic ideals worldwide.
⚫Paine’s political philosophy emphasized individual rights and government by consent, resonating with Enlightenment principles.
⚫”Rights of Man” furthered debates on human rights, impacting democratic reforms during the French Revolution.

Composite image of Harriet Taylor Mill, John Stuart Mill, and James Mill against a serene background, symbolizing their impact on utilitarianism, liberty, and individual rights.

John Stuart Mill: Theory of Human right, liberty and Economics

by History of Western philosophyPhilosophyWestern Philosophy

⚫Mill expanded Jeremy Bentham’s utilitarianism by introducing the concept of “higher pleasures,” which prioritise intellectual, emotional, and moral fulfilment over basic sensory satisfaction. His nuanced view redefined happiness as a multifaceted pursuit essential to individual and societal flourishing.
⚫Mill’s philosophy places personal autonomy at its core, arguing for the protection of individual freedom as long as it does not harm others. His Harm Principle remains a cornerstone of debates on free speech, civil liberties, and societal progress.
⚫In A System of Logic, Mill emphasised empirical observation and inductive reasoning as the bedrock of human understanding. His inductive methods, though foundational in scientific inquiry, faced challenges due to the inherent uncertainties of predicting the future based on past patterns.
⚫Mill’s work in political economy, particularly in Principles of Political Economy, underscores the moral obligation of balancing wealth distribution with economic efficiency. He advocated for reforming capitalism to ensure fairness while supporting innovation and productivity.
⚫Through The Subjection of Women, Mill argued that the subordination of women was not only unjust but also detrimental to societal progress. His advocacy for equal opportunities in education, employment, and politics laid the groundwork for modern feminist movements.

Classical portrait of David Hume, the influential 18th-century philosopher, depicted in deep thought at his desk with books and writing materials.

David Hume's Philosophy: Theory, God and Solipsism

by History of Western philosophyWestern Philosophy

⚫Hume’s empiricism asserts all human ideas originate from sensory impressions, challenging abstract concepts and emphasising the need for empirical evidence.

⚫He is skeptical of miracles, arguing they lack credible empirical support and are often products of human psychological biases.

⚫Hume critiques traditional theistic arguments, highlighting the limits of human understanding in comprehending divinity and metaphysical concepts.

⚫His philosophy emphasises that ethical decisions are influenced by emotions and empathy rather than reason or religious doctrines.

Feature image of George Berkeley with tears and ethereal connections symbolizing his philosophy of phenomenalism, divine perception, and the rejection of materialism.

George Berkeley: Phenomenalism, God, and Our Senses

by History of Western philosophyPhilosophyThinkers

⚫Berkeley’s phenomenonlism posits that material objects exist only as perceptions in minds, rejecting their independent material existence.
God is the ultimate perceiver, ensuring that objects continue to exist even when humans are not able to perceive them.
⚫Perception is the immediate awareness of ideas within the mind, shaped by divine orchestration.
⚫Berkeley’s philosophy emphasises the interdependence of perception and reality, challenging materialist views of independent material substances.
⚫The coherence of perceived reality is maintained through God’s constant perception, underpinning Berkeley’s metaphysical and theological assertions.

Enlightenment-era classroom with diverse students and teacher illustrating Locke's influence on education and equality.

John Locke’s Empiricism: The Blank Slate Theory and Its Impact

by History of Western philosophyPhilosophyWestern Philosophy

⚫John Locke’s empiricism posits the mind as a ‘tabula rasa’ or blank slate at birth, devoid of innate ideas.
⚫Knowledge, according to Locke, comes from sensory experiences and reflection, not from pre-existing notions.
⚫Locke’s distinction between primary and secondary qualities shapes our perception and understanding of reality.
⚫The Blank Slate theory has had significant impacts on education, promoting equality and meritocracy over inherited social status.
⚫Locke’s empiricism played a critical role in the Scientific Revolution, emphasizing observation, experimentation, and the probabilistic nature of knowledge.

illustration of Francis Bacon in a library, holding a scroll and an ethereal globe with scientific symbols, against a backdrop of celestial bodies, showcasing his role in advancing empirical methods.

Francis Bacon: Influence on Philosophy and Science

by History of Western philosophyPhilosophyWestern Philosophy

⚫Francis Bacon was a prominent figure in the transition from the Renaissance to the early modern era.
⚫He had a diverse career as a lawyer, member of Parliament, and Queens Counsel, and wrote on various topics such as law, state and religion, politics, society, and ethics.
⚫Bacon played an active role in the political aspects of religious conflicts and served on various committees.
⚫He rose to the highest political office as Lord Chancellor, but was later impeached by Parliament for corruption and lost all his offices and seat in Parliament.